Category Archives: Geology for the Masses

The Beware of Movies! series is meant to point out some of the scientific inaccuracies of popular movies, specifically in points related to the geological sciences.

This post will present some basic information about geologic time, how we know how old things are, and how movies often get these things wrong.

How do we know the order in which geologic events happened? And how do we know exactly when they occurred?

Uniformitarianism. This is an important concept used throughout the geological sciences. The short definition is “the present is the key to the past,” meaning that the processes that we observe on the modern Earth are identical to processes that occurred in the Earth’s past. Mountains exist today because of the motions of tectonic plates, thus ancient mountains also formed due to the interactions of plates.

This concept is useful for much of the Earth’s history, but might not be applicable to all of it, so it should be used with some caution. At least for the most recent 600 or so million years, it’s a safe assumption. Older than that, some important conditions on the Earth were different. One thing that is true, however, no matter how old of rocks we observe: Chemistry still works the same. Chemical reactions behaved the same 10 billion years ago as they do today. This is very important later on…

There are two basic ways of assigning ages (or dating) in the geological sciences: Relative and Absolute (or Numerical). Relative dating is used to place geological events in order of which came first, second, third, etc. Relative dating does not assign any ages (like ten thousand years ago) to events.

We’ll begin with relative dating, as this is the basis upon which our geologic time scale was originally developed.

There are six important principles used to assign an order to geologic events. Many of these apply especially to sedimentary rocks. Many of these will seem very, very obvious:

• Principle of Superposition – When looking at a pile of rocks, the oldest rocks are on the bottom. Because rocks don’t just float in space with big gaps below them.
• Principle of Original Horizontality – When sediments are deposited, they are deposited in horizontal layers. They’re flat. Thus, if we see rocks that are tilted in any way, we can assume that they were tilted after they were deposited.
• Principle of Original Continuity – Rock layers are deposited over wide areas, not just in the one place where we see them exposed. We assume that a rock layer in one area is continuous with similar rock layers in other areas, even if we don’t see the direct connection. This is one of the most important principles needed to understand the development of the geological time scale.
• Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships – If there is a fault in a rock, or an obvious erosional surface, then we assume that these features occurred after the rock was deposited. That makes sense, because you can’t fault or erode something that does not yet exist!
• Principle of Inclusions – If there are two rock types (rocks A and B) next to each other, and one (rock A) contains pieces of the other (rock B), then the rock containing inclusions of the other rock must be younger. Rock A is younger than rock B in this example.
• Principle of Baked or Chilled Contacts – When magma comes into contact with pre-existing rock, reactions happen. The pre-existing rock is much cooler than the magma, causing the magma to cool rapidly and crystallize (making a chilled contact). At the same time the heat of the magma heats up and bakes the pre-existing rock, resulting in a baked contact. A baked rock is older than the igneous rock in contact with it. A chilled rock is younger than the rock it sits against.

Using these principles we can place geological events in relative order. We can trace rocks from one area to another and compile all the rocks in an area, and even on a continent into relative order. It is based upon this that the geologic time scale was developed. The divisions of the geologic time scale (like the Jurassic Period) get their names from the area in which rocks of that age were first described (like the Jura Mountains). Some divisions are also named based upon the types of rocks that characterize that division. The Cretaceous Period gets its name because many of the rocks are composed of chalk. The Latin word for chalk is “creta.” Using relative dating methods much of the Earth’s rocks deposited over the last 600 million years have been put in order.

We can then add to this fossils with which we can determine a fossil succession using the principles above. It is from this that much about the evolution of life on Earth is understood.

Biostratigraphy is the use of fossils found in a rock to assign a relative or absolute age to that rock. Biostratigraphic units do not depend upon rock type and are thus defined according to the presence of a particular organism (an index fossil) or a complete fossil assemblage. Biostratigraphy is often used to correlate rocks of similar age but different rock types.

It is through principles of relative dating and biostratigraphy that we know that dinosaurs and humans have never co-existed.

Absolute (Numerical) dating is a means by which we can assign an number age to a rock or a fossil (or a geologic event). The method that most people have heard of is radiometric dating. To understand this, we have to talk a little about chemistry.

The chemical elements come in many forms. Some are stable and some are unstable. The unstable ones are also called radioactive. Some elements can come in multiple forms, some stable and some radioactive. The difference is in how many neutrons are in the nucleus, or what isotope the element is in. Carbon, for example, has three isotopes: Carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14. Carbon-12 and carbon-13 are stable. Most of the carbon in the universe is carbon-12. There’s a little carbon-13, and even less carbon-14. Carbon-14 is radioactive, however. It doesn’t stay around forever. At some point it decays (or self-destructs), which is why radioactive elements are so dangerous.

Carbon-14 breaks down into Nitrogen-14, an electron, and an electron antineutrino, which sounds pretty awful. (And it is, if it happens inside your body! Those little extra bits can cause damage, which can lead to cancer.) Other radioactive elements break down (decay) in similar ways. The original element (in this case, carbon-14) is called the ‘parent.’ What’s left behind (Nitrogen-14) is called the ‘daughter.’ The decay of the parent into the daughter products occurs over a specific period of time, called the half-life, which varies from parent material to parent material. For carbon-14, the half-life is 5,730 years.

The half-life is how long it takes for half of the parent material to decay into the daughter product. Here’s an important thing about half-lives, however. This does not mean that after two half-lives, all the parent product is gone. With each half-life, half of the parent product decays. You never really get rid of all the parent material, though there does come a point where it is so small that it becomes impossible to measure.

 

Half-life number	Percent parent material present	Percent daughter product present
0	100	0
1	50	50
2	25	75
3	12.5	82.5
4	6.25	88.75

 

Radiometric dating uses this relationship to assign ages to rocks. One need only to measure the relative amounts of parent material and daughter products in a rock and know the half-life of the parent material in order to calculate the age of a rock. Different parent materials have different half-lives ranging from days to billions of years. A scientist will use the parent-daughter system that works the best for the age of the rocks their interested in. Here are a few examples:

Parent-Daughter	Half-life
Carbon – Nitrogen (radiocarbon dating)	5730 years
Potassium – Argon	1.25 billion years
Uranium-238 – Lead-206	4.47 billion years
Uranium-235 – Lead-207	704 million years

 

For all of these, there are caveats. Firstly, it is important that all the materials being dated actually originally contained the parent material and has not lost any of the daughter product. This can be a problem for potassium-argon dating, for example, because argon, as a gas, can escape. Radiocarbon dating is only good to about 40,000 years before present, before there is so little of the parent material left that it no longer can work.

It is also important to realize that for all of these methods, time zero (or ‘now’) is actually not right now in 2013. It’s actually 1950, which is when the methods were first established. For most radiometric dating methods, this doesn’t matter a whole lot, but for radiocarbon, it can be problematic. Nothing younger than 1950 can be dated using radiometric carbon.

Beware of movies: In the movie Time Cop, with Jean-Claude Van Damme, there’s this shipment of gold that gets transported from the past into the future. This gold is radiocarbon dated (so they say) which informs the time cop agency that it was stolen from the past. Two problems: 1) There’s no carbon in gold. What exactly did they date? 2) If the gold came forward in time, via time machine, it should seem brand new. It should not date to the past. Unless somehow, radioactive decay speeds up in the beaming forward process.

Other radiometric dating methods:

Detrital Zircons: Most of the methods described above are best used to assign ages to igneous rocks. Only radiocarbon dating really works well for sedimentary rocks (but even then, is only useful back to about 40,000 years before present). Radiometric methods can be used to assign ages to sediments when applied to ‘detrital zircons.’ Zircon is a mineral that forms in igneous rocks as they cool and can be dated using the uranium-lead methods noted above. These zircons are very resistant to weathering and become part of sediments that form new sedimentary rocks.

Zircons can be isolated from sedimentary rocks and dated, which gives the age of the igneous rock that they came out of. From this, we can determine where the sediments came from. We also know that the sedimentary rock cannot be older than the youngest zircon that’s in it. Thus, we can derive a maximum age for the sedimentary rock, which can be useful to know.

Fission-track dating: When radioactive elements decay, they leave trails of damage (or tracks) in the matrix of a crystal. These little trails are obvious under the microscope and most often form from the decay of uranium-238. Counting these tracks can be used to assign an age to the mineral and thus the rock that they came from in ways similar to detrital zircon analysis.

Some other absolute dating methods:

Thermoluminescence (TL) dating is used to determine how long a mineral (and the rock that it is in) has been exposed to sunlight. As the mineral is heated, to emits a weak light signal, which is proportional to how much sunlight it was exposed to and therefore how long it sat on the surface. This can tell us how old a material is (like an archaeological artifact) or how long a surface (like a river terrace) has existed.

The use of cosmogenic nuclides for dating surfaces has also come to prominence of late. As it happens, cosmic radiation bombarding an exposed rock surface can cause the appearance of new elements that wouldn’t be there otherwise. A scientist can measure the amount of these so-called cosmogenic nuclides and assign an age to an exposed rock. This can be used to, for example, assign ages to the advances and retreats of glaciers.

There are other methods used by scientists in assigning ages to rocks and fossils, or the parts thereof. For example, one could simply count rings!

Dendrochronology is also known as tree-ring dating. Most trees have annual growth rings which can be used to count years from the initial growth of the tree to its death. If the tree is still alive, one can correlate events down to the exact calendar year. Dendrochronology can help us study paleoclimate and paleoecology, and has been used to calibrate radiocarbon ages.

Sclerochronology refers to the study of growth lines in the hard tissues of animals and plants. Clams show growth lines, as do corals. Some teeth do as well. These growth lines aren’t necessarily annual and may be annual, monthly, fortnightly, tidal, daily, and smaller increments of time. Study of these can help us understand the biology of ancient and extinct organisms.

Ice cores also have annual layers, due to yearly cycles of dust. It is possible to count the rings in ice cores that go hundreds of meters down and study ancient climate patterns, calibrated to precise years, using other geochemical methods. This is how we know much about global warming, glaciations, and climate changes.

Beware of movies: Actually, this is something they got right in “The Day After Tomorrow.” Ice cores are commonly used to measure the concentrations of greenhouse gasses in the Earth’s past atmosphere. They use layer-counting to get the ages right.

Some methods used for dating depend upon comparing patterns of change with similar patterns derived from rock sections of known age.

Magnetostratigraphy is a technique used to date sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The Earth’s magnetic field has not always been such that the north end of the compass needle points toward the north pole. The field has reversed itself many times, and these reversals have not been regular. Scientists can go out and collect rock samples through a series of rocks and measure which way the magnetic poles were pointing at the time the rocks were deposited. This pattern is then compared with the ‘geomagnetic polarity time scale’ for the Earth (which has ages assigned to it). Where the patterns match gives an age for the rocks.

Chemostratigraphy or correctly termed Chemical Stratigraphy is the study of the variation of chemistry within sedimentary sequences. Much like magnetostratigraphy, variations of particular chemical markers also provide useful time markers. For example, the Paleocene-Eocene boundary (~55 million years ago) is defined by a huge spike in the amount of carbon-12 in the Earth’s atmosphere, which is recorded in the rock. Chemostratigraphy can also be used to track environmental changes, since chemical markers change when climates and environments change.

This post has covered most, but not all, of the potential methods by which geological units and events might be dated by geoscientists. If there are other methods that you’ve heard of, comment about them and I can explain those too.

The Beware of Movies! series is meant to point out some of the scientific inaccuracies of popular movies, specifically in points related to the geological sciences.

This post will present some basic information about volcanoes and how they work, and point out the major inaccuracies portrayed in movies about volcanoes.

What is magma? How is that different from lava?

It’s a good question. We’ve all heard the terms before, magma and lava, and probably you’ve got a general sense of what they mean, but do you know the specific definitions.

Magma and lava are both words for molten rock. Liquid rock. Very hot. This distinction is that magma is below the surface of the Earth and lava is what you call it when it’s on (or above) the Earth’s surface.

 Types of magma

Molten rock is not all created equal. When you look at rocks, you realize that they’re of all different kinds. So if you melt that rock, it’s going to be of different compositions reflecting the rock that was melted.

To discuss the composition (or types) of magma, we refer back to Bowen’s Reaction Series. Magma can be felsic (high silica, high calcium, aluminum, and potassium) or mafic (low silica, high iron and magnesium), or anything in between. These compositions affect the behavior of the molten rock. Silica tends to polymerize (make chains) in molten rock, which means that a more felsic magma tends to be more viscous (or that it doesn’t flow very well). The high levels of iron and magnesium in mafic magma makes it more dense. Also felsic rocks melt (to make a felsic magma) at much lower temperatures than mafic rocks.

From this discussion, one might gather (and rightfully so), that the composition of a magma is determined by the type of rock that melted to make the magma. There are other ways to change the composition of a magma (which will serve to explain why we have different compositions of rocks in the world)

 Changing the composition of magma

1) The composition of the parent rock (the rock that melted to form the magma) – If you melt a mafic rock, you get a mafic magma. This is the most straightforward means to change or determine the composition of a magma.

2) Assilimation – If a magma body incorporates another rock, which then melts, unless the incorporated rock is of the exact same composition of the magma, the composition of the magma will change. As magma rises through the crust, it ‘eats’ through the rock above it (country rock), melting and incorporating the country rock, changing the composition of the magma body.

3) Magma mixing – Two separate magma bodies while moving together may wind up coming in contact and mixing. Unless the two magma bodies have the exact same composition, a new magma will result with a composition in between the original two magmas.

4) Partial melting of rock – As noted earlier, felsic rock melts at a lower temperature than mafic rock. When any rock melts, the first minerals to melt are the most felsic minerals. Over time, as the rock heats up, the more mafic minerals begin to melt. But a rock doesn’t always completely melt over time. If a rock only partially melts, and the melted rock (magma) moves away, the magma is more felsic than the original rock and the remaining rock is more mafic than the original rock. Thus, through partial melting, a magma may become more felsic.

5) Fractional crystallization – As a magma cools, the first minerals to crystallize are the most mafic ones, causing the remaining magma to become more felsic. These newly-formed mafic minerals might settle out, leaving behind a more felsic magma to continue on its way toward the Earth’s surface.

 Intrusive or extrusive

Not all magma makes it to the surface. If it does, you get an eruption and a volcano. Lava erupts onto the surface to cool and form what we call extrusive igneous rocks. The magma that doesn’t make it to the surface will crystallize below the surface, and is called intrusive igneous rock, or just an intrusion.

Since we’re talking about volcanoes, we’re going to talk only about extrusive igneous rocks formed from lava.

 What comes out of volcanoes?

Lava is the molten rock that comes out of volcanoes, but there is much more that comes out. The opening out of which the lava flows is called a vent. But it isn’t always lava flows that come from vents. There is also ash and other pyroclastic debris. So what does that mean?

The stuff that flies out of volcanoes is called volcaniclastics or pyroclastics. The root ‘clastic’ refers to little bits and pieces that get deposited together. The volcani- part refers to volcanoes (obviously), and pyro- refers to fire. So the words mean bits and pieces of rock coming from volcanoes or coming from fire.

Those bits and pieces have specific names depending upon their size and shape:

Ash – tiny glass shards that form when the lava crystallizes almost instantaneously.

 Beware of movies: It seems that in almost every movie (for example, Dante’s Peak and Volcano), there’s always a ton of ash snowing down upon the main characters of the story. This ash is glass shards! If you inhale this, it will cut your lungs to bits and you will die a miserable death. Yet, somehow, in movies this is never an issue. In paleontology, some of the best fossil assemblages came to be when an eruption occurred and the ash killed the animals in just this way. Then the ash buried the animals and perfectly preserved the animals for geoscientists to later discover.

Lapilli – pea to plum sized fragments that can be streamlined from flying through the air.

Blocks and bombs – apple to refrigerator sized fragments that are shot from a volcano. Blocks are bits of rock that were already cool when they were shot, whereas bombs were molten when they were shot and often are streamlined in flight.

The deposits left behind are also given special names, depending on how they formed:

Ignimbrites (or pyroclastic flows) – avalanches composed of ash or ash plus lapilli. These things can go very fast, riding down the slope on a cushion of air, just like a snow avalanche.

Lahars – a rapid slurry of volcaniclastic material in water (like a mudflow), most often caused when snow caps suddenly melt off of volcano peaks during an eruption.

 Beware of movies: In Dante’s Peak, there was ample opportunity for good pyroclasic flows and lahars, but there weren’t many. There should have been. And the ones that they did show were too slow and did not flow far enough. It was pretty weak, honestly.

 Lava flows and types of eruptions

Different compositions of magma (lava) behave differently as they flow out of a volcano. Because of the polymerization of silica, felsic lavas tend to flow more slowly and in a more ‘chunky’ form than does mafic lava. Mafic flows can move much greater distances than can felsic flows.

Eruptions of fast-moving, low-viscosity mafic lavas are often what we call ‘effusive,’ or characterized by huge flows and lava lakes. Other eruptions like that of Mount Saint Helens in May of 1980 (or of Dante’s Peak), are ‘explosive’, which characterizes eruptions of intermediate to felsic lava.

Magma (and lava) often contains dissolved gasses, which must escape when the lava erupts. If the gas can escape easily, an eruption will be more effusive, but if the gas cannot escape, eruptions may be very explosive.

The interaction of eruptions with water also effects whether and eruption will be explosive or effusive. If a volcano erupts under water (or lava flows into water), the results can be explosive.

 What kinds of volcanoes are there?

The types of flows coming from a volcano (and therefore, the composition of the erupting lava) determines the shape of the volcano.

Shield volcanoes are huge, flat (shield-shaped) volcanoes that result from dominantly mafic flows that are effusive in character. The Hawaiian Islands are all enormous shield volcanoes.

Stratovolcanoes (also called composite volcanoes) are tall, pointed volcanoes, often associated with explosive eruptions and felsic to intermediate compositions of lava. Such volcanoes tend to be composed of repeated layers of flows and pyroclastic depositis. Mount Saint Helens and Mount Rainier are two prominent examples of stratovolcanoes.

 Where do we find volcanoes?

Volcanoes tend to be in specific places throughout the world, not just stuck willy-nilly where ever they seem needed. For example, you don’t find volcanoes in the middle of continents.

The positions of volcanoes on the Earth is almost entirely dictated by plate tectonics. Volcanoes arise do to the interactions of tectonic plates, and thus tend to be at or very near plate boundaries. Additionally, plate tectonics dictates what kind of volcano might be found where.

To review, there are three important types of plate tectonic boundaries: divergent (spreading centers, or mid-ocean ridges), convergent (including subduction zones and collisions), and transform (where plates slide past each other).

Volcanoes are not common along transform faults, and usually only on those that have a slight component of spreading across them. In those cases, some mafic eruptions might occur, but they tend to be very small.

Beware of movies: In the movie Volcano, a volcano forms from the La Brea Tar Pits in the middle of Los Angeles, California. This is along a transform boundary, but not one that would be a candidate for a volcano. This transform boundary has a slight component of convergence, so if anything there should be mountain building, not volcanoes occuring.

Spreading centers, being the place where new crustal material is being formed from eruptions linked right to the mantle, tend to have large, mafic volcanoes. There has been little opportunity for the magma that forms these volcanoes to undergo any of the processes that would make them more felsic.

Convergent boundaries, especially subduction zones, usually have large stratovolcanoes associated with them. Much of the margin of the Pacific Ocean is characterized by stratovolcanoes and subduction zones, and is called the “Ring of Fire” because of it. The magma formed at subduction zones forms as the subducted plate melts. The magma slowly rises through the crust, changing its composition as it goes due to assimilation and fractional crystallization, so that when it erupts it is generally intermediate or felsic in composition.

Beware of movies: in the movie Dante’s Peak, the subject volcano is a stratovolcano in the Cascades. This is perfectly reasonable, as the Cascade Mountains are the result of the subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate under the North American plate. The one mistake that is made in the film is that it depicts rapidly-flowing, presumably mafic flows coming from the volcano, which do not make sense given the type of volcano they’re dealing with.

Not all volcanoes are associated with plate boundaries, however. There are a few exceptions that form due to what are called “hot spots,” or heated plumes of magma that (so far as we know at this time) form at the core-mantle boundary and get all the way to the Earth’s surface. These volcanoes can appear anywhere on the Earth’s surface, two good examples being the Hawaiian Islands and the Yellowstone hotspot. Because the Hawaiian hotspot is in the middle of oceanic crust, the eruptions tend to be mafic, resulting in shield volcanoes. The magma for the Yellowstone hotspot passes through continental crust, resulting in highly explosive, intermediate or felsic eruptions.

 Can we predict volcanic eruptions?

I’ve already discussed at great length that earthquakes cannot be predicted. Is the same true for volcanic eruptions? Actually, the story isn’t as dismal for volcanoes. We do often get some manner of advanced warning of an impending eruption, though the warnings might be months or only hours ahead of an eruption, or they might be false alarms.

The movement of magma below the Earth’s surface, toward vents for example, are detectable by seismometers. In fact, the direction in which the magma flows below the Earth’s surface is even measurable if an appropriate seismometer network is in place. Outgassings, and temperature and pH changes of water bodies can also provide evidence of a possible eruption, similar to what was seen in Dante’s Peak. And, since we tend to know where volcanoes should exist and we know how they are formed, we have some hints about what to look for if an eruption may be immanent.

There’s hope for predicting volcanic eruptions. But to know exactly when or how intense an eruption might be, is elusive.